Emergence and Ideals of Nationalism and Liberalism Nationalism Nationalism is the concept of a nation consisting of people unified by common culture, language, and/or religion, who should all be ruled by one government Opposition to the Congress of Vienna, which had the principle of states based on monarchies and dynasties, largely disregarding the ethnic makeup of countries as a factor that should be a basis for boundaries Multinational states (Austria and Russia for example) were opposed Believed that people who shared ethnicity (Italians, Germans) should live under one common government, rather than multiple governments Popular sovereignty was common among nationalists The nationalist ideal of a nation-state was complicated by the fact that minorities lived in any region where one group was predominant Two "phases" of nationalism First phase (first half of the 1800s) - small nationalist groups made up of the intellectuals (historians, professors, teachers, and other scholars) imparted cultural history, bonds, and language on the people Second phase (second half of the 1800s) - out of the knowledge imparted by the small groups of intellectuals, the masses began to support nationalism Language in each region was always a point of contention among the nationalists France and Italy - the official, "proper" versions of the language replaced regional dialects in schools Poland and Scandinavia - the ethnic languages were attempted to be revived, where the official languages were attempted to be imposed by the governments Meanings of Nationhood Some nationalists argued that uniting ethnicities into one group (such as Germans into one Germany) would help economic and administrative success Some nationalists thought that nationhood was imposed by God, or compared nationhood to divinity Difficulties in classifying nations Which ethnic groups could be considered nations with legitimacy to claim political and territorial independence? Would nationhood only be classified on which groups managed to create a stable economy and culture? Would ethnic uprisings be viewed as legitimate grasps for independence? Hotbeds of Nationalism in Europe Ireland Since Ireland became directly governed by the British Crown after 1800, Irish people elected members to the Parliament Nationalists demanded either independence or autonomy Nationalism would persist in Ireland well into the 20th century Poland Since the loss of Polish independence in the Partitions, Polish nationalists, spurred on by the Polish Romantics, urged for armed struggle to regain independence from Austria, Prussia, and Russia Most disturbances occurred in the Russian portion of Poland (November Insurrection of 1830-1831 and January Insurrection of 1863-1864) Bad military leadership or disunity doomed the attempts at independence in both the November and January risings, as well as the short-lived revolution in Krakow, in the Austrian portion (Galicia) in 1846 Nationalism continued to fester among the Poles, though after 1864, no uprisings occurred as the nationalists began to theorize that before independence could be restored, all social classes and sectors of Polish economy must be improved and equalized Hungary Ever since Maria Theresa rescued the Habsburg Empire from collapsing by granting concessions to the Magyar nobility of Hungary, the nobility there persisted in gaining and retaining more privileges Hungary would trouble the stability of the Habsburg Empire untilits end in World War I Hungarian nationalists launched several uprisings, and participated in the "Spring of Nations" in the Revolutions of 1848 Hungarian agitations led to the eventual Compromise of 1867, when Austria and Hungary became virtually separate nations in a personal union under the Habsburgs Balkans In the Balkans, numerous ethnic groups wanted independence, uncluding Greeks, Serbs, Albanians, Romanians, and Bulgarians Serbs and Greeks both gained independence in 1830 and 1821, respectively, from the Ottoman Empire The Serbs grew to envision a "Greater Serbia", which would include not just the Serbia liberated from Ottoman rule, but also the Serbs living in Austria; this ambition would expand further into liberating all south Slavic (Yugoslav) people, and was the most immediate cause of World War I Liberals had a vision of the Greek Revolution of 1821 as a revival of the classical Greek democracy, and many fought amongst the revolutionaries The threat of Nationalism to the Establishment Nationalists, as mentioned above, sought to redraw the map of Europe along ethnic lines Success of nationalists would effectively dissolve the Ottoman, Austrian, and Russian empires Nationalism and liberalism sometimes worked hand-in-hand, adding to the concern of absolutists and ultraroyalists Nationalism also threatened to, and eventually succeeded, unite the various German and Italian states into unified, strong countries, challenging French and Austrian ambitions in the areas Liberalism Political goals Derived from the Enlightenment, English liberties, and principles of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Establishment of legal equality, religious tolerance, and freedom of press Less autocratic government Belief that legitimacy of government rested on the consent of the people Parliament would represent the people Ministers in government should be responsible to the legislature rather than the monarch (ie, dependent on the consent of the representative legislature than the absolute monarch) Sought democracy limited to the property-owners Had contempt for the lower class Aristocratic liberty was thought by liberals to be a concept of privilege based on wealth and property rather than birth Economic Goals Sought the removal of mercantilism and regulated economy Promoted capitalism Favored removal of international tariffs and internal trade barriers France and Great Britain flourished with liberal establishments, but Germany as full of monarchs who opposed liberal ideals Conservative Order in Europe Conservatism Pillars of Support Absolute Monarchies Landed Aristocracies Established Churches The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars solidified an alliance between the three ancient institutions Conservative Views Execution of Louis XVI by radical democrats convinced the monarchs that only aristocratic and/or upper-bourgeois governments could be trusted Aristocrats felt that their power would not be protected by representative governments Conservatives would not agree to constitutionalism unless the documents were conservative creations Clerics, still reacting to the anticlericalism of the French Revolution, only supported popular movements if they were based around the Church Clerics supported the status quo, and detested ideas of the Enlightenment Upper classes felt surrounded by enemies and gave up some former privileges Post-Vienna Europe confronted internal problems after external ones (wars) seemed to disappear Reaction in Austria and Germany Austria Prince Klemens von Metternich, architect of the Congress of Vienna settlement, was an epitome of conservative political reaction against nationalism and liberalism Austria in particular was threatened by liberalism and nationalism because it was the most multi-ethnic country in Europe Recognition of aspirations of any ethnic groups would snowball into dissolution of the empire Representative government was feared because national groups could gain their ambitions legally through parliaments To prevent success of nationalism and liberalism even further, the Austrians were determined to dominate the states of the German Confederation, which replaced the Holy Roman Empire as a loose organization of 39, rather than the pre-Napoleonic 300+, nominally independent kingoms and principalities Moves toward constitutional government in each of the states of the Confederation were opposed and blocked by Austria Prussia King Frederick William III promised constitutional government in 1815, but went back on his word in 1817 A Council of State was formed, which was not constitutionally-based, but effective 1819-1823 - Further steps away from liberalism had been undertaken by the King, culminating in the establishment of eight Junker-dominated provincial estates (diets), reaffirming the link between Prussian monarchy, army, and landholders German Confederation Constitutional Governments established in three south German states of Baden, Bavaria, and Wurttemberg, but did not recognize popular sovereignty and confirmed powers of the monarchs Young Germans remained fiercely true to the nationalism and liberalism that emerged from the Napoleonic occupation University students circulated nationalist writings and formed the Burschenschaften (student associations) The Burschenschaften sought to sever old provincial loyalties and replace them with national loyalty to a greater German state 1817 - Jena - Bonfires and celebrations were organized for the anniversaries of the Battle of Leipzig and Luther's Ninety-five Theses - Nationalist celebrations such as these accentuated the rise of the movement throughout Germany and made rulers uneasy March 1819 - Karl Sand, a member of one of the student clubs, assassinated the conservative dramatist August von Kotzebue and was tried and executed, but became a martyr for the young nationalists Metternich used the Sand incident to suppress the societies July 1819 - Metternich persuaded major German states to issue the Carlsbad Decrees Dissolution of the Burschenschaften Press and university censorship Final Act limited the subjects that might be discussed in the constitutional assemblies of Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden Assertion of the right of the monarchs to resist constitutionalist demands Led to the constant harassment of potential dissidents by the German monarchs Repression in Britain Prime Minister Lord Liverpool was unprepared for the emergence of the internal problems after the war This Tory monistry sought to placate and protect the interests of the landed and wealthy classes 1815 - Corn Law passed to maintain high prices for domestic grain through import duties on foreign grain 1816 - Parliament abolished the income tax for the wealthy, replacing it with excise taxes on consumer goods paid by the wealthy and the poor Lower classes began to doubt the wisdom of the rulers Calls for reform were intensified Radical newspapers formed, demanding change of the political system, including William Cobbett's Political Registrar The government feared the workers as possible repetitions of France's sans-culottes ready to murder the elites Government ministers regarded the radical leaders, including William Cobbett, John Cartwright, and Henry Hunt as demagogues betraying national allegiances December 1816 - Discontent mass meeting occured at Spa Fields; the government reacted by passing the Coercion Act of March 1817, which suspended habeas corpus and extended laws against seditious gatherings "Peterloo" and the Six Acts After temporary stability, radical reformism grew again by 1819 August 16, 1819 - Radicals met in Manchaster at Saint Peter's Fields Royal troops were called to keep order, but panic broke out, and people panicked, making the massacre famed as the "Peterloo Massacre" Liverpool supported the Manchester administration's decision to move the troops in, and became determined to stop the radical movements Radical leaders were arrested December 1819 - Six Acts passed Forbade large unauthorized public meetings Raised the fines for seditious libel Sped up the trails of political agitators Increased newspaper taxes Prohibited training of armed groups Allowed local officials to search homes in certain distrubed countries Two months after the Six Acts, the Cato Street Conspiracy was discovered Under the leadership of a man named Thistlewood, extreme radicals plotted to assassinate the entire British Cabinet The leaders were arrested and tried, four of them being executed Conspiracy served only to discredit the reform movement Bourbon Restoration in France Napoleon's fall from power allowed Louis XVI exiled brother, Louis XVIII, to return and come to power (Louis XVI's son, though he never formally ruled France, was regarded as Louis XVII) Reversal of the constitutionalism of the revolutionary days being impossible, Louis XVIII permitted a constitution, but it was largely his own creation - the Charter Hereditary Monarchy Bicameral legislature - royally-appointed upper house; lower house (Chamber of Deputies) elected on a very narrow franchise with high property requirements Guaranteed the rights of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Religious toleration, with Roman catholicism as the official religion Property rights of current owners of land would not be challenged Rise of Ultraroyalists Count of Artois led the extreme royalists in demanding revenge against former revolutionaries and Napoleonic supporters Immediate after Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo, a "White Terror" occurred in the southern and western regions Extreme royalists also controlled the Chamber of Deputies, and the King, feeling threatened by their extremism, dissolved the chamber February 1820 - Duke of Berri, son and heir of Artois, was assassinated Ultraroyalists persuaded Louis XVIII that the murder was the result of the royal concessions to liberals Louis XVIII issued repressive measures Electoral laws were revised to give the wealthy two votes Press censorship and arrest of suspected dissidents was implemented Secondary education was given to control of the Roman Catholic clergy Ultraroyalists succeeded in reversing much of the appearance of liberal constitutionalism in France Challenges to the Conservative Order Spanish Revolution of 1820 1814 - Bourbon Dynasty restored to Spain following Napoleon's defeat The restored King, Ferdinand VII, promised to rule constitutionally, but he quickly dissolved the Cortes, the Spanish Parliament 1820 - a group of army officers who were supposed to go to Latin America to suppress revolutions there rebelled March 1820 - King Ferdinand restored the constitution July 1820 - revolution broke out in the Italian states Outside the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily), the revolutions failed to establish constitutional governments Austrians were frightened by the Italian insurrections, hoping to dominate the peninsula as a buffer against spread of the revolution into its southern domains Britain opposed intervention October 1820 - Congress of Troppau and the Protocol of Troppau Meeting between Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain, and France Asserted that stable governments can intervene to bring back rule of law in unstable and revolutionary countries Powers were hesitant, however, to sanction Austrian intervention in Italy January 1821 - Congress of Laibach authorizes Austria's intervention Austrian troops marched into Naples and abolished the constitution, making the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies absolutist again Metternich would attempt to foster policies that owuld improve administration of the Italian governments to give them more direct local support 1822 - Congress of Verona met to resolve the Spanish conflict Britain refused to sanction joint action and effectively withdrew from continental affairs Austria, Prussia, and Russia supported French intervention in Spain April 1823 - French troops enter Spain and within months suppress the Spanish Revolution, occupying the country until 1827 Significance of the Spanish situation French intervention was not an excuse to expand territory or power No other interventions of the era were undertaken to increase power at another country's expense New British Foreign Minister George Canning, who led Britain out of continental affairs, was interested in British commerce and trade Sought to prevent political reaction from seeping into Spanish Latin America Sought to exploit the revolutions in Latin America to crush the Spanish monopoly on trade there Britain quickly recognized the Spanish ex-colonies as independent nations Greek Revolution of 1821 Revolt attracted liberals and Romantics from all over Europe as a "rebirth of ancient Greek democracy" Weak Ottoman Empire could hardly hold on to its European holdings European powers had ambitions in the Balkans but could not determine what to do with the land should the Ottoman Empire fall apart and lose that territory Britain, France, and Russia soon concluded that an independent Greece would benefit them strategically and maintain domestic status quo 1827 - Treaty of London signed, demanding Turkish recognition of Greek independence 1828 - Russia sent troops into Ottoman Romania 1829 - Treaty of Adrianople Russia gained control of Romania Ottoman Empire would have to allow Britain, France, and Russia to decide the fate of Greece 1830 - Second Treaty of London affirms an independent Greek Kingdom - Otto I, the Bavarian King's son, becomes the first king of Greece Serbian Independence 1804-1813 - Karageorge waged a guerilla war against the Ottoman Empire, helping build national self-identity and attracting the attention of the great powers 1815-1816 - Milos negotiated greater administrative autonomy for some Serbian territory, but few Serbs lived within the autonomy 1830 - Serbia formally given independence 1833 - Milos, having become a hereditary prince, succeeded in pressuring the Ottomans to extend Serbian borders Serbian leaders from then on would seek more territory, creating tension with Austria, as well as with the ethnic and religious minorities within Serbia itself 1856 - Serbia became under collective protection of the great powers, and a deeper relationship had begun between Serbia and Russia Revolutions in Latin America Haiti Started by a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1794 Popular uprising of a repressed social group, rather than of discontent Creoles Haiti became independent in 1804 The success of the Indians, blacks, mestizos, mulattos, and slaves in Haiti haunted the Creoles in Latin America Creoles became determined that revolutions not threaten their own power Reasons for Creole discontent Wanted to trade freely within the region and with North America and Europe Sought to end Spain's mercantilistic domination of Latin American trade Detested increase of taxes by the Spanish monarchy Creoles resented the peninsulares (whites born in Spain), who were favored for political and military promotions, believing that the peninsulares did not deserve the positions they held Creole elites read the Enlightenment philosophes, adopting the reforms presented by the ideologues Napoleon's overthrow of the Portuguese (1807) and Spanish (1808) governments transformed discontent into rebellion Portuguese royals fled to Brazil establishing a government there, while the Spanish Bourbons were temporarily defeated The disappearance of Bourbon monarchy provided an opportunity and political vacuum for the Creoles in Latin america Creoles feared the liberal Napoleonic monarchy in Spain would try to implement reforms endangering their own power Creoles also feared that Napoleon would drain the resources and economies of Latin America to fund his war effort 1808-1810 - Throughout Latin America, Creole political committees (juntas) formed and claimed the right to govern regions of the continent, claiming they ruled in the name of the deposed Bourbon monarchy The juntas did away with the privileges of the peninsulares, and, though wars would still be fought for control, Spain was permanently ousted from Latin America Rio de La Plata (Argentina) First to assert its independence, starting with a revolt in Buenos Aires, where the citizens realized they could take matters into their own hands after fighting off a British attempt to dominate the market in 1806 1810 - the junta overthrew Spanish authority and sent troops into Paraguay and Uruguay to liberate the two regions The armies were defeated, but Paraguay became independent on its own, and Uruguay eventually became part of Brazil After the failure in Paraguay and Uruguay, the Buenos Aires junta was determined to liberate Peru, which was a stronghold of royalism and loyalism in Latin America 1814 - Jose de San Martin, general of the Rio de La Plata forces, led an army across the Andes Mountains 1817 - San Martin occupied Santiago, Chile, allowing Chilean independence leader Bernardo O'Higgins to become dictator San Martin organized a naval force and by 1820 set out to attack Peru by sea By 1821, San Martin defeated the royalists in Lima and declared himself Protector of Peru Venezuela 1810 - Simon Bolivar organized a junta in Caracas Bolivar advocated republicanism 1811-1814 - Civil war broke out between royalists and their supporters (slaves and llaneros - Venezuelan cowboys) and the republican government Bolivar forced into exile in Colombia and Jamaica 1816 - With help from Haiti, Bolivar invaded Venezuela Captured Bogota, the capital of New Granada (Colombia, Bolivia, and Ecuador), securing a base for attack on Venezuela 1821 - Bolivar captured Caracas and became president July 1822 - Bolivar joined San Martin to liberate Quito, but at a meeting in Guayaquil, they disagreed on the political future of Latin America, since San Martin was a monarchist San Martin soon retired and went into exile, giving Bolivar the opportunity to establish control over Peru in 1823 New Spain (Mexico, Texas, California) A junta, as elsewhere was organized, but before it gained significant control, Creole priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla called for rebellion to the Indians in his parish Indians and other repressed groups responded Father Hidalgo proposed social and land reform, soon controlling a loose organization of 80,000 followers, capturing several major cities and marching on to Mexico City July 1811 - Hidalgo was captured and killed, passing leadership of the movement to mestizo preist Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, who was much more radical and called for an end to forced labor and much more radical land reform 1815 - Morelos was executed, and the uprising ended The uprising united Spanish and Creole conservative groups in Mexico, who were determined to halt all kind of reform 1820 - The conservatives' power was yet again challenged, this time from the Bourbon monarchy in Spain, which was forced to adopt a liberal constitution The conservatives then rallied behind royalist general Augustin de Iturbide in declaring independence in 1821 and supporting his declaration as emperor The imperial government did not last long, but Spain was never again in power in Mexico Brazil Brazilian independence came peacefully The Portuguese royal family came to Brazil and transformed Rio de Janeiro into a court city Prince regent Joao addressed local complaints and expanded trade 1815 - Brazil became a kingdom, no longer being a colony of Portugal 1820 - A Portuguese revolution demanded that Brazil be restored to colonial status and Joao return to Portugal Joao left his son Dom Pedro as regent as he returned to Portugal, encouraging him to be sympathetic to the Brazilians September 1822 - Dom Pedro embraced Brazilian independence and became Emperor of Brazil, the imperial government surviving until 1889 The peaceful transition meant no vacuum of power or question of authority, as in most other Latin American nations Brazilian elites were determined to avoid the power vacuums and abolition of slavery that occurred throughout the rest of the Latin American nations, and this determination helped make a peaceful transition from colonialism to independence Consequences New Latin American countries, with the exception of Brazil, were often economically and politically unstable Disaffected populations threatened the stability of the new post-Spanish republics Economies plunged and trade suffered Wealthy peninsulares fled to Spain or Cuba, causing the Latin American governments to seek trade relations with Britain Decembrist Revolt in Russia Russian officers were exposed to ideas of the French Revolution They underwent tsarist repression, but met secretly Radicals, in the Southern Society, advocated representative government and abolition of serfdom Moderates, in the Northern Society, advocated constitutional monarchy, abolition of serfdom, but also protection of the aristocracy The societies agreed only on that the government must change Death of Tsar Alexander I caused two crises Unexpected death occurred when he had no direct heir Constantine, his brother, married a commoner and was excluded from the line of succession Eventually, Nicholas, his younger brother, became Tsar Legality of Nicholas's claim was uncertain, until a suspected conspiracy made Nicholas declare himself Tsar Junior officers plotted to rally the troops under their command to reformism December 26, 1825 - most of the army swore loyalty to Nicholas, who was less popular and more conservative Moscow regiment marched ino the Senate Square in St. Petersburg, refusing to swear allegiance, called for a constitution, and demanded that Constantine become Tsar Peaceful negotiation failed Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to attack the insurgents, and 60 people were killed in the melee 1826 - Nicholas presided over the sentencing of the Decembrists, executing or sending the plotters to exile in Siberia The Decembrist Revolt failed, but was the first specifically-political rebellion in Russia, and symbolized ambitions of the increasingly numerous liberals in Russia Absolutism of Nicholas I in the aftermath of the Decembrist Revolt Nicholas I came to symbolize extreme absolutism (or "autocracy") Though he knew economic and social improvement was necessary, he feared change In his view, abolition of serfdom would undermine aristocratic support of the monarchy State repression and censorship flourished Official Nationality Program presided over by Count S. S. Uvarov Slogan was "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism" Russian Orthodox Church was supposed to provide basis for morality, education, and intellectuality, and was already a part of the secular government Russian youths were taught to oppose social mobility Autocracy championed absolute monarchy and absolute power of the Tsar, stressing that only with the strong power of the monarchy would Russia remain together Nationality glorified the Russian nationality and urged Russians to see religion, language, and customs as source of wisdom separating them from corruption and turmoil of the West July Revolution in France Causes After Louis XVIII died in 1824, the Count of Artois succeeded him as Charles X Charles X was very ultraroyalist Charles's first action was to have the Chamber of Deputies in 1824 and 1825 indemnify aristocrats who lost property in the revolution by lowering interest rates on government bonds Middle-class bondholders resented the measure Charles X restored the rule of primogeniture Enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death Elections of 1827 - liberals gained majority in Chamber of Deputies and compelled conciliatory actions from Charles, who appointed a less conservative ministry Laws against the press were eased, but liberals were not satisfied 1829 - Charles decided his appeasement policy failed and appointed a new ultraroyalist ministry The liberal opposition, in desperation, negotiated with the liberal Orleanist branch of the Bourbon family Outbreak of revolution 1830 - Charles called for new elections, and liberals again won a vast majority The King decided to attempt a royalist political coup and sent a fleet to Algeria, taking control of the pirate state established there Reports of the victory reached the capital by July 9, and Charles took advantage of the euphoria to enact the Four Ordinances, which restricted freedom of the press, dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, restricted the franchise, and called for new elections under the new royalist, conservative franchise Charles's attempt did not go unnoticed and liberal press called on national opposition to the Four Ordinances The people of Paris erected barricades in the street, and battles with royal troops took more than 1,800 lives, and the troops were unable to crush the uprisings August 2 - Charles abdicated and fled into exile in Britain The Chamber of Deputies appointed a new ministry which supported constitutional monarchy and proclaimed Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, as the new King of France Accomplishments of the July Revolution Liberals of the Chamber of Deputies filled a power vacuum The liberals favored constitutional monarchy, and succeeded Any delay in action on the part of the constitutionalists would have brought on a popular uprising from the lower classes, which would have attempted a republic Fear of a radical republic united temporarily the lower and the upper elements of the midlle class The Monarchy of Louis Philippe Political developments The new constitution was regarded as a right of the people rather than privileges of the monarch Catholicism became the religion of the majority, but not the official state religion, the new government being strongly anticlerical Censorship was abolished Voting franchise was extended moderately King had to cooperate with the Chamber of Deputies Social order The revolution did not improve the standards of the lower class Money was the only method of influence in government Plight of the poor was ignored In late 1831, the troops suppressed a workers' uprising in Lyons In July 1832, more than 800 people were killed in an uprising that happened during a Napoleonic general's funeral 1834 - Another disturbance in Lyons was brutally crushed International development King Louis Philippe retained control of Algiers, the city that Charles X conquered, and began to expand the territory beyond just the coastal city Occupation of Algeria opened new markets for France Structures of the Ottoman government were dismantled in Algeria French empire in Africa expanded further and flourished, French settlers coming in to Algeria in large numbers Immigration of French people into Algeria compelled the French government to regard Algeria as a province rather than colony of France The ethnic integration would pose a problem in the post-World War II decolonization later on Belgian Revolution Causes Since 1815, Belgium had been merged with the Kingdom of Holland The two countries differend in culture and economy, and the Belgians refused to accept Dutch rule Encouraged by the July Revolution in France Outbreak August 25, 1830 - Riots broke out in Brussels Municipal authorities and property-owners formed a provisional government Attempt at compromise failed and troops sent by King William of Holland were defeated by November 10 A national congress wrote a liberal constitution, which was put into effect in 1831 International Reactions Major powers saw the Belgian Revolution as a distortion of the borders set by the Congress of Vienna, but none were willing to act Russia was fighting the Polish rebels Prussia and the German Confederation were crushing insurgencies in their own land Austria was crushing disturbances in Italy France favored Belgian independence in the hopes of dominating it Britain would tolerate Belgian liberalism as long as it was not influenced by other nations December 1830 - Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Minister, gathered the major powers in London to persuade them to recognize Belgium as a neutral independent state July 1831 - Leopold of Saxe-Coburg became King Convention of 1839 guaranteed Belgian neutrality November Insurrection in Poland Since the Congress of Vienna, the Russian Tsar's brother, Grand Duke Constantine (mentiond in the dynastic crisis above) controlled the government, while the Tsar was the official King of Poland The Polish aristocrats and Sejm fought with their Russian overlords for the Russians' constant violation of the Polish Constitution Liberal revolutions in France and Belgium encouraged Polish nationalists but had the reverse effect on the Russian Tsar The Russians planned to use the Polish Army to crush the revolutions The Poles protested and a riot in Warsaw on November 29 soon spread to revolution across the country December 13, 1830 - the Sejm declared a national uprising and oficially dethroned Nicholas I on January 25, 1831 Though the Polish Army was outnumbered and unprepared, the Poles held their own against the overwhelming Russian forces Neither Britain, nor revolutionary France, supported the Insurrection Prussia and Austria deliberately made it hard for the rebels By the end of 1831, the Insurrection had fallen, the troops disarmed in Prussia February 1832 - The Tsar issued the Organic Statute, making Poland a part of Russia Great Reform Bill of 1832 in Great Britain 1830 - Election of a House of Commons which considered the first major bill to reform the British political system Catholic Emancipation Act Britain was determined to maintain control of Ireland In the 1820s, the Irish nationalists agitated for Catholic emancipation Catholics could now become members of Parliament, ending Anglican monopoly of British politics The measure alienated Anglican supporters of the Duke of Wellington, the Prime Minister, and King William IV turned to the leader of the liberal Whigs, Earl Grey, to form a new government The Whig ministry Riots broke out when the Whig's attempt at passing a massive reform bill was blocked by the House of Lords To stop the riots, William IV agreed to persuade a majority in the House of Lords to pass the Great Reform Bill Expanded the size of the electorate by almost 50% while keeping a property qualification and keeping it only for men Some franchise rights were taken away and actually disenfranchised some working class people The act laid the foundations for further reform