Internal Situations and Issues Russia The new tsar Nicholas II succeeded Alexander III to the throne Nicholas, however, was reluctant to take the crown He was unprepared to deal with the complexities of commanding the military and foreign policies of an empire Furthermore, Nicholas was taught to maintain absolutism in the face of an increasingly liberal world and a dissatisfied, radicalized Russian population Industrialization created the middle-class and proletariat, both groups that sought change: the former on a gradual basis and the latter advocating a radical course of action Absolutism was becoming obsolete worldwide, but Nicholas was the son of a hard-line absolutist and thus was taught in the ways of the old system Ethnic and Religious minorities Ethnic separatists detested Russian rule Finns Poles Ukrainians Lithuanians Latvians Estonians Georgians Armenians Azeris Ossetians Chechens Kazakhs Uzbeks Tadzhiks Tatars Religious groups fell under oppression by the Russian Orthodox Church Poland - Catholic Church, Greek-Catholic (Uniate) Church, Judaism The Uniate Church was oficially dissolved by the Russian government and clerical hierarchy, its churches converted to serve Orthodoxy Baltic provinces - Catholic Church, Protestants, Judaism Caucaus - Armenian Apostolic Church, Islam Central Asia - Islam Russification Ethnic minorities were pressured to Russify Printing in local languages was severely limited Educational and administrative bureacracy was Russified - Russian was the official language Attempts were made to introduce the Russian Cyrillic alphabet in the areas populated by minorities - in some cases, such as Central Asia, the local alphabet was completely forbidden, books reprinted in Cyrillic In school, children had mandatory Russian courses and could speak only in Russian on pain of being beaten or expelled Russian Jewry was likewise pressured to Russify but retained their traditions and culture Refusing to abandon their culture, Russian Jews felt the full force of oppression Pogroms - organized attacks on Jewish communities - became widespread, many Jews losing their lives and entire Jewish villages and neighborhoods suffering vandalization or being burnt to the ground were Having no choice, Russian Jews began emigrating, primarily into the Polish provinces or Austria-Hungary Resettlement of Russian Jews in Poland and Ukraine only perpetuated ethnic conflict in those provinces Many of the Jews were Hassidic and anti-assimilationist; they spoke Yiddish, maintained their dress and behavior, and lived in separate Jewish-only shtetls, effectively segregating themselves from the Gentile (non-Jewish) population The Russian Jews' self-imposed isolation limited or outright prevented contact with the Gentiles, which promoted numerous stereotypes and apprehensions to develop among both societies. Locals viewed them as foreigners which, in the heyday of nationalism, put the two groups at odds Brutal Russification only bred resentment by the ethnicities that fell victim to it. They were determined to gain independence, and ethnic-based political parties formed councils outside Russia to try and gain support from the other powers Social problems Serfdom was abolished but peasants continued to suffer Mirs - peasant communes - were formed, in which the peasants had collective ownership of land they got from the landed nobility The land, however, was poor in quality Peasants were encouraged to emigrate to Siberia, despite lack of arable land in the icy wasteland Peasants had to pay redemption dues to the nobles Peasants still had no say in government Industrialization Russia industrialized slowly and had no hope of catching up to either Germany or Britain Economy was still agriculture-based. Many regions still had no factories at the outbreak of war New social classes were created New proletariat was highly discontent The workers had to work long hours for meager wages They had to adapt to the new industries, previously knowing only agricultural economics Proletariat had no power in government New bourgeoisie demanded power The new middle-class consisted largely of the industrialists who owned the new factories They thus provided for Russia's new economy Despite their ownership of industry, the bourgeoisie had no power in government, either Trans-Siberian Railway The Trans-Siberian Railway was a feat of Russian transportation engineering It was a single-track railway begun in 1891 that streched across the entire Russian Empire, connecting Moscow in Europe to Vladivostok in the Far East The flaw was that it was a single-track railway, and when it was needed to transport troops to the front during the Russo-Japanese War, it was constantly backed up Landed nobility The landed nobility still boasted much power The nobles resented losing land to the mirs but were pacified by the redemption fees Though there were nobles that joined secret liberal movements, most of the nobles were conservatives determined to maintain the tsarist monarchy Russian Orthodox Church The Russian Orthodox Church opposed its continued subordination to the tsar The Church did own land grants throughout Russia Through Russification policies, the Orthodox Church was rapidly encroaching into the Catholic provinces of Poland and the Muslim Central Asia Poverty plagued Russia, and famines were not unheard of Social injustices bred extreme resentment from the lower classes, in turn creating sources of support for radicals The peasants supported the Socialist Revolutionary Party (the SRs), a socialist party advocating primarily agrarian and peasant interests that was willing to commit terrorism to achieve their goals The workers were inclined toward the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, a socialist party redressing proletarian grievances In 1903, the Social Democrats split into the radical Bolsheviks led by Lenin and more-restrained Mensheviks The bourgeoisie and philantropic nobles saw the social inequalities as a trend that must be done away with, and formed liberal groups after the Revolution of 1905 The nobles formed the Octobrist group, which was content with the October Manifesto and would only seek small reforms, piece-by-piece The middle-class formed the core and support of the Constitutional Democrats (Kadets), who were content with keeping the tsar in power as a constitutional monarch but were committed to parliamentary democracy in Russia Russo-Japanese War Causes of the war Decline of China European powers and Japan took advantage and secured spheres of influence in Chinese ports Unable to depend on help from China as that country wasn't even strong enough to help itself anymore, Korea fell victim to the imperialism of its traditional enemy Japan Resource-rich Manchuria was in between the weak China and the powerful Russian and Japanese empires Manchuria, Port Arthur, and the Liaodong Peninsula were the key points of contention Russia needed Port Arthur because it was a warm-water port in the Far East Japan knew that Russian control of Port Arthur could allow Russia to build a navy in the region and threaten imperialist ambition of Japan Both empires wanted control of Manchuria for its resources Japan and Russia were in a virtual cold war with each other for years leading up to the actual beginning of the war Outbreak of war On December 31, 1903, Japan sent an ultimatum to Russia, demanding withdrawal of Russian troops from Manchuria; after an impasse of two months, Japan finally broke off relations and attacked on February 8, 1904 The war began with a surprise-torpedo attack from the ships under command of Japanese Admiral Heihachiro Togo upon the Russian fleet docked in Port Arthur. A series of indecidive naval battles began afterwards The Russian fleet was able to survive because of the harbor guns assisting in the defense Since the Russian ships did not leave the harbor, the Japanese decided to keep them there - they mined the area to prevent Russian evacuation The Russians reciprocated and laid minefields of their own, successfully luring two Japanese battleships into their own trap, sinking both By August, the situation reversed and Japan was on a successful naval siege offensive - the remaining Russian ships were sunk On January 2 of 1905, Port Arthur fell after bloody battle The Japanese army was determined to win quick and decisive victories in Manchuria; the Russian strategy was to hold the Japanese as long as possible until reinforcements could come from the rest of the Russian Empire, and at least two major ships struck the minefields, one sinking The flaw, as mentioned before, was that the Trans-Siberian Railway, the most effective method of transporting the soldiers, only had one track and thus transfer of troops to the front was excruciatingly slow Japanese troops suffered heavy losses attacking heavily-fortified Russian forces, but the Russian commanders did not take advantage of the Japanese weakness to counter-attack Japanese forces eventually gained land successes, as well, and Russian forces were successively crushed throughout Manchuria Treaty of Portsmouth The peace was mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt Considering what might have been, the peace was lenient towards Russia Port Arthur, the Liaodong Peninsula, and the southern half of Sakhalin Island were ceded to Japan Russian troops were forced to evacuate Manchuria Korea was recognized as a Japanese sphere of influence Russia did not have to pay reparations to Japan Effects of the war Japan was recognized as a major power because it defeated Russia, despite numerical inferiority Japanese pride and nationalism was propped up significantly; Russian pride and the Europeans' sense of superiority over the Asians were damanged Loss of confidence in government occurred in Russia Revolution of 1905 The constant setbacks provoked widespread discontent and loss of confidence in the government Strikes occurred in some factories and peasant unrest increased Conditions everywhere deteriorated as resources were committed to the war effort On January 22nd, a peaceful demonstration marched in the imperial capital, St. Petersburg, to present a petition to the tsar demanding reforms Freedom of religion and separation of church and state Land redistribution to the peasants Compulsory education End of social discrimination in courts Progressive taxation Termination of all redemption payments Freedom to organize labor unions 8-hour workday Institution of minimum wage The tsarist police fired at the crowd At least 1,000 demonstrators were killed or wounded The cause of death for most of them was probably the panic that erupted which resulted in trampling of others News of the massacre, named Bloody Sunday, spread quickly. Rioting broke out across the capital Many social groups participated in the unrest that accompanied the empire-wide outrage at the massacre, each seeking its own objective Peasants sought goals ranging from lower rents to better wages to more land grants. Peasant unrest continued well into 1908. In some places, local nobles' estates were looted. Workers across the Russian Empire went on strike, paralyzing Russian industry and economy Some military units rioted against what they condemned as irresponsible and incompetent prosecution of the war in the east. Mutinies were disorganized, however, and crushed Minority ethnic groups sought to gain independence from Russia, but some of these groups' ambitions conflicted with those of the others, causing ethnic violence to flare Outcome of the Revolution Tsar Nicholas II made concessions in the October Manifesto Reforms were half-heartedly promised Freedom of religion Freedom of speech Freedom of assembly Broad-based election of a parliament (the Duma) by universal suffrage Decree that all laws must have consent of the Duma The redemption dues were nullified The concessions were superficial and only paid lip-service to constitutionalism and democracy The Council of Ministers was responsible to the tsar Political parties were allowed to compete for power, but the tsar dissolved the Duma as he pleased - the first two lasted only a few months The tsar was permitted to rule by decree when the Duma was not in session Indirect election ensured that the landed nobility would remain in dominance in the political arena The tsar remained in control of the police apparatus and used this to arrest, exile, or execute radical leaders Between revolution and war Social problems were not solved at all - the lower classes were kept out of government and thus were attracted by the radical SRs and Bolsheviks Ethnic groups continued to agitate for independence and waited for the moment when the monarchy would be weak enough to succeed in their goals The Duma was dissolved whenever the tsar's policies were conflicting with the aims of the party ruling the assembly Pre-War Politics in Russia The new Russian parliament consisted of two houses - the upper-house was the State Council and the lower-house was the State Duma The State Council was appointed by the Tsar himself and had generally more power than the State Duma The State Duma was elected by the Russian people The First Duma (April 1906-July 1906) had 326 seats The First Duma was dominated by moderate socialist and liberal parties demanding further democratization Parties of non-Russian national groups won 121seats Trudoviks, a party that reflected the views of the SRs, won 94 seats Constitutional Democrats (Kadets) won 79 seats Octobrists won 17 seats Parties of the extreme-right wing of politics - very conservative - won only 15 seats The Socialist Revolutionaries and Social Democrats, didn't participate in the elections, boycotting them as unfair The parties dominating the First Duma demanded land reform and an amnesty for all political prisoners - demands the Tsar didn't even consider giving in to After only 73 days, the First Duma was dissolved The Second Duma (February 1907-June 1907) had 387 seats In the election for this new Duma, the Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries participated Non-Russian groups joined in a coalition with the Kadets The entrance of the two major socialist parties obviously increased the proportion of socialists in parliament Social Democrats gained 65 seats Socialist Revolutionaries gained 34 seats Trudoviks won 101 seats Kadets won 92 seats Octobrists got 32 seats Extreme-rightists won 63 seats Upon dissolving the Second Duma, Tsar Nicholas II proclaimed a new law to reduce the electoral power of the non-Russians and the Russian lower-class while increasing the influence of the aristocrats The Third Duma (November 1907-1912) had 394 seats This Duma was dominated by Octobrists and parties of the conservative right-wing, and thus lasted much longer than the first two assemblies Octobrists got 120 seats Nationalists - 76 seats Extreme-rightists - 53 seats Kadets - 52 seats Progressives - 39 seats Non-Russian groups - 26 seats Trudoviks - 14 seats Social Democrats - 14 seats The SRs boycotted the Third Duma The Tsar was more willing to listen and consider the Duma's proposals Nevertheless, the assembly and Tsar clashed on a variety of issues, despite the Duma's conservatism Autonomy of Finland, then under Russian control Judicial reforms Establishment of workers' insurance organizations with police supervisions So why did it fail? The Tsar and the Duma seemed to be at odds with almost every issue - sometimes, it was actually the Duma that was more restrained and conservative-minded than the Tsar himself Constant arguments created a nearly-chaotic atmosphere in Russian government For most of the duration of the Third Duma, the Prime Minister Stolypin was collaborative with the assembly, but a double-agent working for the Tsar's secret police (the Okhrana) assassinated him Stolypin's replacement, Kokovtsvov couldn't mediate as effectively between the Tsar and the Duma The assassination of Stolypin was probably the ultimate reason for the failure of the Third Duma despite its running its full 5-year term The Fourth Duma (November 12-February/March 1917 had 423 seats Again the more-conservative Octobrist party dominated Octobrists had 99 seats Nationalists - 88 seats Extreme-right parties - 64 Kadets - 57 seats Progressives - 47 seats Centrists - 33 seats Non-Russian groups - 21 seats Trudoviks - 10 seats Social Democrats - 4 seats Again, the SRs boycotted Until the war, the Duma and the Tsar continued the tradition of quarreling between each other When the First World War finally broke out in 1914, the Duma approved of the Tsar's war effort Even that solidarity soon dissolved as incompetence plagued the military, political, and economic administrations When revolution broke out yet again in early 1917, the Duma was more than willing to oust the Tsar and take control themselves Austria-Hungary The Dual Monarchy The Dual Monarchy was formed from the Compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867, in which the Austrian Empire and Hungarian Kingdom were oficially separated into separate states The Austrian Empire consisted of Austria-proper, Trentino, Trieste, Tyrol, Bosnia (since 1908), the Czech lands (Bohemia and Moravia), part of Silesia (Teschen), and Galicia The Hungarian Kingdom consisted of Hungary-proper (including Slovakia and Romanian-populated Transylvania) and Croatia In this arrangement, both Austria and Hungary were legally on equal footing The two had separate parliaments and shared only the same ministries of military, financial, and foreign affairs The Austrian Emperor was at the same time the Hungarian King, so there were effectively two countries (Austria and Hungary) within a greater country (Austria-Hungary) Only the Germans (Austrians) and the Magyars (Hungarians) had their own "country" within this dual monarchy. The Slavic and Romanian minorities never forgave the Austro-Hungarian government this perceived injustice In the Austrian part of the Dual Monarchy, the minorities did, however, enjoy some benefits By World War I, there were even Slavic deputies in the Austrian parliament. The Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia enjoyed autonomy and were the most-likely Slavic group to gain status parallel to that of Hungary if such an arrangement would have been possible (the Hungarians repeatedly sabotaged and refused to accept any such proposals) In Galicia, the Poles enjoyed autonomy as well and it was in this portion of the territories of Poland (which were partitioned in the late 1700s by Austria, Prussia, and Russia) that the most hope for restoration of independence existed - only in Austrian Galicia was it possible for the Poles to form their own political parties and there was much leniency on the part of the Austrians in Galicia, even if the province was economically backward. The Hungarian nobility ruling Hungary, however, promoted Hungarian culture and suppressed their ethnic minorities During the 1800s, a Slovak national awakening occurred, propagated by the Slovak clergy When the Habsburg Empire was restructured in the Compromise of 1867 and Slovakia was bound into Hungary, the Hungarians worked to suppress the Slovak national movements. The Slovaks turned to the better-positioned Czechs for help, setting a precedent for the establishment of Czechoslovakia at the end of World War I In Transylvania and the eastern Banat, the Romanian population was likewise persecuted by the Hungarians who felt they were a particular threat to Hungarian strength because the Romanians wanted to unite with the already-existing independent state of Romania Croatia had nominal autonomy but was subjugated economically and politically by the Hungarians, causing Croat nationalists to agitate for more autonomy Until the collapse of the Dual Monarchy, in Hungary it was the Magyar interests that were promoted and the minorities that were crushed Despite the initial success of the Ausgleich, there was much tension between the Austrian and Hungarian halves Throughout the half-century of the existence of Austria-Hungary, both waged tariff and commercial wars on each other and fostered financial conflict to try and give themselves an edge over the other The overlapping duties of the common ministries only furthered problems - the Austro-Hungarian military suffered confusion and ineffectiveness from the bureacratic overlap as each separate government still had influence over the legislations concerning military expenditures and terms of military service Language was an issue that was particularly divisive in the Austro-Hungarian government - in 1906, a dispute over what language Hungarian military commanders should use triggered a constitutional crisis between the Austrian government and the Hungarian nationalists that gained power in Budapest Ethnic minorities Austria-Hungary's ethnic composition German (Austrians) - 24% Magyar (Hungarians) - 20% Slavs - 47% Czechs - 13% Poles - 10% Ruthenes (Ukrainians) - 8% Croats - 5% Slovaks - 4% Serbs - 4% Slovenes - 3% Romanians - 6% Italians - 3% Czechs, Poles, Ukrainians, Croats, and Slovenes sought greater influence in the government and wanted autonomy within a federation In the Czech lands, the language situation fluctuated spontaneously. Sometimes, the Austrian government legislated that the official language in Bohemia was to be German only, but other times, Czech was permitted Of all Slavic-populated provinces, it was Bohemia that was most Germanized and most-likely to be assimilated In Galicia, Poles hoped to use Galician autonomy as a springboard to restoration of Poland, if not completely with the Russian and German parts, then at least from Galicia In eastern Galicia, though, the Ukrainians were experiencing their own national revival and there was increasing friction In Trentino and Tyrol, the Italians wanted to unite with the Kingdom of Italy Slovaks were being pressured by the Hungarian government to assimilate and were forced by that pressure into cooperating with like-minded Czechs Croats wanted much more freedom than Hungary permitted them Serbs resented Habsburg rule and wanted union with independent Serbia Romanians were also oppressed by the Magyars so they wanted to find refuge in uniting with Romania Germans enjoyed highest status, followed closely by the Magyars, and the Czechs were among all the minorities in the most advantageous position as bureaucrats Tension, nationalism, ambition, and years of cultural oppression (primarily on the part of the Magyars in Hungary) all conspired to dangerously destabilize Austria-Hungary Conscription to military service in World War I lit the fuse for the inevitable disintegration of Austria-Hungary All the oppressed minorities gained support of the Triple Entente in their bids for independence Economic Inequalities Throughout the Dual Monarchy there were inequalities in the development of the provinces Feudalism was gradually wiped away by industrialism and capitalism Commerce centered in Vienna, so later Vienna's Kredit-Anstalt bank figured heavily in the quick spread of the Great Depression of the 1930s throughout central Europe The western provinces were the most modernized, with Bohemia being the industrial hub of Austria-Hungary, followed closely by the neighboring Czech province of Moravia In the eastern provinces, primarily in Hungary but including Austrian Galicia, the economy continued to be primarily agrarian-based, so those regions were the most backward New railways linked Budapest, Bratislava, Prague, Krakow, Graz, Ljubljana, and Venice with the western railway network that was already built in the 1840s with its center in Vienna Social Issues Despite the gradual withering away of feudalism, many of its basic tenets remained, especially in Hungary The Hungarian nobility continued to treat the peasantry nearly as serfs, though they were emancipated Education opportunities were slowly opening, but many of the peasants remained ignorant The ethnic tensions magnified these social issues Italy Government Italy was a constitutional monarchy, under the House of Savoy, which was the royal family of Piedmont when it led the unification wars The Italian parliament was elected with restricted suffrage - the 1913 election was the first in which universal male suffrage was legalized The King had extensive powers, and could, for instance, appoint senators Italian politics were plagued with corruption Religion Despite being a Catholic nation and government, the relations between the Papacy and the government were filled with tension and animosity The Papacy sealed itself within the Vatican and the Pope declared himself a prisoner, in protest of the Italian occupation and annexation of Rome in 1870 Nationalism As mentioned earlier, the Italian nationalists resented Habsburg rule of ethnically-Italian territories This nationalist drive for unification was what compelled the Italian government's duplicitous decision to ally with Austria and then plot with France and Britain Social Issues The primary social issues plaguing Italy rested in the economic structures of northern and southern provinces In the north, the economy was heavily industrialized Northern Italy's regional economy was much more stable and wealthier Southern Italy remained heavily agricultural and was thus very backward The southern economy was weaker This disparity between north and south caused regionalism to emerge despite the common nationalism Southerners resented being ruled by a government that they believed catered to the northerners Northerners meanwhile looked upon the southern Italians with scorn and contempt Though corruption hit politics everywhere, it was in the south that it was the strongest It was during this period that Sicily and the southern coasts of the Italian peninsula became synonymous with crime and the mafia Ottoman Empire Technological Backwardness A major problem the Ottomans faced was the technological backwardness. The government was dominated by conservatives who opposed modernization at a time when it was key to survival The conservative social structure prevented any attempt at industrialization, as capitalism would be hindered by the social conservatism Government The Sultan (the Ottoman equivalent of "Emperor") was in theory the supreme power in the Ottoman Empire The Sultan was closely moderated by the supreme religious council, called the ulema, which could call for the removal of the Sultan from power if he issued decrees that did not conform to the wishes and ideas of the ulema. This contributed to the inability of the Sultans to modernize their country The Sultan had a Grand Vizier as the chief advisor - an equivalent to a Prime Minister - but the Grand Vizier was always sacrificed by the Sultan to prevent a coup. The constant dismissal and appointment of Grand Viziers prevented a stable succession of power in government and new policies would sometimes contradict those that were made only a few years ago The Sultan could take several wives and have many concubines - this created problem of succession because he could conceivable father dozens of sons, who were susceptible to fratricide in order to become the heir or to secure their position Whenever the Sultan died and one of his sons became the new Sultan, he had his brothers executed for fear of conspiracies on their part The rationalization was that it was better for those few to die if it meant that there would be one central authority and political stability The mothers constantly battled for dominance, trying to promote their own sons as the best heir and whoever was the mother of the new Sultan sometimes figured prominently in his decisions In a democratizing and liberalizing world, the Ottoman Empire was behind in the times, as the Empire's entire government revolved around the absolutist Sultan Dissatisfaction with the gradual loss of territory to European powers undermined popular support in the Sultans' government and conspiracies to install new regimes were present throughout the later 19th century, particularly in the capital, Constantinople None of the plots were successful or even well-organized until the Young Turks began organizing Military The Sultan's personal army, the Janissaries were especially opposed to change and worked to sabotage whatever campaigns the Sultan attempted to undertake to modernize the army The Janissaries were made up primarily of the sons of Christian families that were given to the Sultan in exchange for respecting the Christian religious minority's rights to worship Though a code of honor originally ruled the Janissaries, it deteriorated as they rose to prominence in the Sultan's court and by the 1800s, bribery and theft prevailed The Janissaries rebelled at any attempt at military modernization In 1826, when Sultan Mahmud II ordered Janissaries to wear western-style uniforms, they revolted Instead of conceding defeat to the Janissaries, Mahmud II used the artillery to fire on the Janissary barracks in Constantinople, destroying the barracks and killing all Janissaries inside and trying to escape Outside the capital, Janissary units were peacefully disbanded but many were executed for treason nevertheless This event marked the end of Janissary domination but the Ottoman Empire could not hope to catch up technologically with the European armies - years of Janissary politicking had taken their toll and doomed the Empire to decline Foreign advisors were brought in to try and modernize the army as efficiently and quickly as possible but were regarded as inferior and with suspicion by the Ottoman elite Territorial losses did nothing to motivate speedier modernization Territorial Collapse 1783 - Russia annexed Crimea 1783-1864 - Gradual annexation of Georgia and adjacent areas by Russia 1812 - Annexation of Bessarabia by Russia 1829 - Romania became a Russian protectorate 1830 - Greece and Serbia became independent 1878 Bulgaria, including Macedonia and Thrace, became independent, then quickly truncated under another treaty giving Macedonia and Eastern Rumelia (southern Bulgaria) back to the Ottomans Serbia's independence was fully confirmed, as was that of Montenegro Bosnia was occupied by Austrian troops Cyprus was ceded to Britain 1881 - Loss of Tunisia to France 1882 - Loss of Egypt to Britain 1885 - Revertion of Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria 1908 - Annexation of Bosnia by Austria-Hungary 1912 - Loss of Libya to Italy 1913 - Independence of Albania Young Turk Revolution of 1908 The Young Turks were a group of modernist officers and nationalists, led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk The Young Turks overthrew then-Sultan Abdul Hamid II because of anger over the government's inactivity over the Europeans' stripping-away of Ottoman territory Muhammad V was placed on the throne of a constitutional monarchy The first Turkish political movements were established, namely the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) which represented Young Turk ideas, and any other movement that either agreed with or opposed the Young Turks and the CUP A new bureacracy was established and within years asserted control over the military and administration The rise of the Young Turks effectively put an end to yearning for return to Sultans' absolutist regimes - any politician who supported a restoration was discredited by that rhetoric The Young Turks pursued a nationalist policy of Turkification The already-tense relations between the Christians of Armenia and the Muslims in the rest of the empire were further strained Violence against Armenian Christians became gradually more common The Empire's Arab populations, though Muslim, were also pressed to Turkify and Arab-Turkish relations became tense enough to be explotied later on by the British during World War I German Empire Government Germany's government was structured as a federal union - semi-autonomy was retained by the Kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurttemberg, and the smaller principalities continued to exist The Kaiser (Emperor) was the King of Prussia It was a constitutional monarchy in theory, but in practice, Germany was still absolutist Kaiser Wilhelm II He believed in absolutism and the belief of divine right of kings Rather than seeking to elevate the power of Prussia, he wanted to strengthen Germany as a whole He traveled constantly, much to the disdain of the German politicians WIlhelm was superficial and though intelligent, he had no self-discipline The Reichstag was Germany's parliament It was divided into the upper house (Bundesrat) and the lower house (Reichstag) In theory, the Reichstag had the political power, and was elected by universal male suffrage The lower house, though, was restricted The upper house was dominated by the Prussians and was the part of parliament that could initiate legislation The parliament, as well as the Chancellor and council of ministers, were responsible to the monarch, not to the electorate Nevertheless, political parties could and did compete for power, including the first socialist party, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), Conservatives, National Liberals, and Centrists Ethnic issues Ethnically, Germany was primarily German, but minorities existed In the eastern provinces were Poles In Schleswig-Holstein were Danes French minority groups lived in Alsace-Lorraine The government followed a policy of Germanization which was fiercely resisted by the minorities, especially the Poles Germans' migration from east to west made the eastern provinces consistently more Polish in linguistic and ethnic makeup, causing even more animosity between the Poles and the Germans who remained Economy The German economy was the most industrialized in all of Europe Living standards consistently increased "State socialism" continued on its successful path Germany was Marx's ideal location for a socialist revolution to take place, as it was highly-industrialized and thus had a huge proletarian population France The so-called Third Republic was a liberal democratic republic, but it was extremely unstable Governments lasted for rarely more than a year each Groups from both the left - radicals, socialists, liberals - and the right - conservatives, nationalists, and monarchists - fought bitter political wars with each other for control of the republic The instability rested in that disunity, as France's politics lacked any single strong party, and each group fought within itself as well The president was severely weakened during the Third Republic and France was unique on the continent in that its executive branch never dismissed its legislature, compared to the monarchs of Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, or Italy In 1905, the government's legislation took an anti-clerical stance, and church and state were forcibly separated At the same time, an upsurge in anti-Semitism occurred, most famous case being the Dreyfus Affair, in which a Jewish general was tried and accused of being a foreign spy despite unconvincing evidence to prove the accusations International Relations Triple Alliance (signed originally in 1882 then renewed in 1902) Members were Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy Prior to Italy's entrance, this was the Dual Alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany Italy joined as a response to the French seizure of Tunisia in May 1881, which the Italians wanted to colonize themselves Many Italians, despite the French maneuvers in North Africa, were against the treaty Austria-Hungary had always been the traditional enemy of Italian reunification; it was largely against Austria-Hungary that the Kingdom of Piedmont fought to unify the Italian states Austria-Hungary still had control of areas that consisted primarily of Italians, such as Trentino, Istria, as well as the mixed city of Trieste Italian nationalists vowed to unite these regions with the Kingdom of Italy, and called these areas Italia irredenta, earning them a moniker as irredentists, which would become synonymous with anyone in an ethnic group that sought to unify all the areas that had populations dominated by their own ethnicity. Austria-Hungary and Germany had become partners in 1879 during the time of Bismarck, despite the fact that the German Empire was created on the ruins of Austrian domination of the region. To avoid making Germany a continental pariah, Bismarck signed this alliance with Austria-Hungary to portray Germany as a peacemaking nation. In the Treaty of San Stefano concluding the Russo-Turkish War, Russia gained significant influence in the Balkans, an area that Austria-Hungary had been craving as well. The Treaty so outraged the Austrians that Bismarck called a conference in Berlin and drafted the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, and effectively reversed many Russian gains from the San Stefano. This permanently soured Russo-German relations but brought Austria-Hungary and Germany together. If not for its weakened status, the Ottoman Empire could have been a fourth partner, as it had gotten closer to Germany in the years leading up to World War I Triple Entente The Triple Entente began originally as three individual alliances The Franco-Russian Alliance was signed in 1892 between France and Russia Despite Russia's insistence, Germany declined to renew its Reinsurance Treaty in 1890 Russia felt vulnerable due to the existence of the Triple Alliance, Russia reached out to France, who was diplomatically isolated due to Bismarck's clever maneuvering Both countries promised to help each other if either was attacked by Germany or another Triple Alliance member assisted by Germany Battle plans in case of Triple Alliance aggression were to be coordinated - Germany would thus have to fight on the Western front with France and the Eastern front with Russia Public opinion in both countries was supportive, as the Alliance assured security against a hostile Germany The Entente Cordiale was signed in 1894 by the Britain and France The agreement was a milestone, breaking a centuries-old rivalry and hostility between the two countries It resolved disputes over Morocco, Egypt, Madagascar, areas in central and west Africa, Newfoundland, and Siam Free passage was guaranteed though the Suez Canal The Anglo-Russian Entente was signed in 1907 between Britain and Russia Competition in Central Asia - including Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet - was resolved as spheres of influence were defined The agreement was signed to prevent German expansion and influence in the region In 1907, Britain, France, and Russia merged their respective agreements into the Triple Entente It wasn't overtly a military alliance, but nevertheless was a strong counterweight to the Triple Alliance Italy's conflicting foreign policy The Italian government secretly pursued a dual foreign policy Though it pledged support and loyalty to the Triple Alliance, Italy secretly signed agreements with France effectively nullifying its Alliance commitments This was to be proven by Italy's initial support for the Alliance during World War I and its subsequent switch to the Entente side of the war Serbia Since gaining independence, Serbians constantly agitated for separation of Slavic-majority areas from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and union of these territories with Serbia. As the Ottoman Empire continued to deteriorate, so did the stability in the Balkans - Russia and Austria-Hungary became the major powers that were now interested in the region Until 1903, Serbia was ruled by the Obrenovic dynasty, which was pro-Habsburg The Obrenovic kings were resented by the Serbs and their own military for their pro-Habsburg stance In June of 1903, the nationalistic army initiated a palace coup, overthrowing bloodily the Obrenovices The new family ruling Serbia was the Karadjordjevic dynasty, which was pro-Russian and continued traditional Serbian demands for withdrawal of Austro-Hungarian rule from the South Slavic provinces With a nationalistic monarchy in place, Serbia aligned itself with Russia Nationalist extremism was secretly promoted by the Serbian government, further destabilizing the region Neutral states such as Switzerland, Belgium, and the Netherlands were not parts of alliances, but their independence was sponsored and guaranteed by the major powers. Violating this independence would, without fail, plunge the continent into war, as it had in 1914. International Relations Triple Alliance (signed originally in 1882 then renewed in 1902) Members were Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy Prior to Italy's entrance, this was the Dual Alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany Italy joined as a response to the French seizure of Tunisia in May 1881, which the Italians wanted to colonize themselves Many Italians, despite the French maneuvers in North Africa, were against the treaty Austria-Hungary had always been the traditional enemy of Italian reunification; it was largely against Austria-Hungary that the Kingdom of Piedmont fought to unify the Italian states Austria-Hungary still had control of areas that consisted primarily of Italians, such as Trentino, Istria, as well as the mixed city of Trieste Italian nationalists vowed to unite these regions with the Kingdom of Italy, and called these areas Italia irredenta, earning them a moniker as irredentists, which would become synonymous with anyone in an ethnic group that sought to unify all the areas that had populations dominated by their own ethnicity. Austria-Hungary and Germany had become partners in 1879 during the time of Bismarck, despite the fact that the German Empire was created on the ruins of Austrian domination of the region. To avoid making Germany a continental pariah, Bismarck signed this alliance with Austria-Hungary to portray Germany as a peacemaking nation. In the Treaty of San Stefano concluding the Russo-Turkish War, Russia gained significant influence in the Balkans, an area that Austria-Hungary had been craving as well. The Treaty so outraged the Austrians that Bismarck called a conference in Berlin and drafted the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, and effectively reversed many Russian gains from the San Stefano. This permanently soured Russo-German relations but brought Austria-Hungary and Germany together. If not for its weakened status, the Ottoman Empire could have been a fourth partner, as it had gotten closer to Germany in the years leading up to World War I Triple Entente The Triple Entente began originally as three individual alliances The Franco-Russian Alliance was signed in 1892 between France and Russia Despite Russia's insistence, Germany declined to renew its Reinsurance Treaty in 1890 Russia felt vulnerable due to the existence of the Triple Alliance, Russia reached out to France, who was diplomatically isolated due to Bismarck's clever maneuvering Both countries promised to help each other if either was attacked by Germany or another Triple Alliance member assisted by Germany Battle plans in case of Triple Alliance aggression were to be coordinated - Germany would thus have to fight on the Western front with France and the Eastern front with Russia Public opinion in both countries was supportive, as the Alliance assured security against a hostile Germany The Entente Cordiale was signed in 1894 by the Britain and France The agreement was a milestone, breaking a centuries-old rivalry and hostility between the two countries It resolved disputes over Morocco, Egypt, Madagascar, areas in central and west Africa, Newfoundland, and Siam Free passage was guaranteed though the Suez Canal The Anglo-Russian Entente was signed in 1907 between Britain and Russia Competition in Central Asia - including Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet - was resolved as spheres of influence were defined The agreement was signed to prevent German expansion and influence in the region In 1907, Britain, France, and Russia merged their respective agreements into the Triple Entente It wasn't overtly a military alliance, but nevertheless was a strong counterweight to the Triple Alliance Italy's conflicting foreign policy The Italian government secretly pursued a dual foreign policy Though it pledged support and loyalty to the Triple Alliance, Italy secretly signed agreements with France effectively nullifying its Alliance commitments This was to be proven by Italy's initial support for the Alliance during World War I and its subsequent switch to the Entente side of the war Serbia Since gaining independence, Serbians constantly agitated for separation of Slavic-majority areas from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and union of these territories with Serbia. As the Ottoman Empire continued to deteriorate, so did the stability in the Balkans - Russia and Austria-Hungary became the major powers that were now interested in the region Until 1903, Serbia was ruled by the Obrenovic dynasty, which was pro-Habsburg The Obrenovic kings were resented by the Serbs and their own military for their pro-Habsburg stance In June of 1903, the nationalistic army initiated a palace coup, overthrowing bloodily the Obrenovices The new family ruling Serbia was the Karadjordjevic dynasty, which was pro-Russian and continued traditional Serbian demands for withdrawal of Austro-Hungarian rule from the South Slavic provinces With a nationalistic monarchy in place, Serbia aligned itself with Russia Nationalist extremism was secretly promoted by the Serbian government, further destabilizing the region Neutral states such as Switzerland, Belgium, and the Netherlands were not parts of alliances, but their independence was sponsored and guaranteed by the major powers. Violating this independence would, without fail, plunge the continent into war, as it had in 1914.